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Concrete is considered to have resistance against natural disasters like windstorms, flood etc. and is used as an exterior skin on buildings. Though concrete is reliable for strong building structure, yet concrete manufacturers are concerned with its quality and reliability.
There has been a great need to test concrete before being used in buildings in order to remain safe from disasters. It is often observed that building contractors are blamed of using concrete of lower quality. Concrete is also beneficial against fire conditions as the concrete walls and roofs give protection to human lives when the building catches fire and it is possible only when concrete is made up to the standards. That is why testing of concrete has been a great issue for concrete manufacturers and civil engineers for the last many years.
Concrete is the primary material used in buildings. To test the durability of concrete some standards are employed. These standards are adopted by laboratories throughout the world to test and examine the composition of ingredients used for concrete .These standards are normally used to check hardness, elasticity, and strength of concrete. Old standards are being updated and replaced by new standards in concrete testing with the help of modern technologies.
Before stating the importance of concrete testing, let’s have a look on the composition of concrete, as the properties of ingredients used in concrete determine the properties of concrete. Concrete is a mixture of water, aggregates, and cement.
Water and cement hold the stones and sand together to form concrete. This mixture is mixed together to form the plastic mass which can be molded into the desired shape. When this paste gets hard it becomes like a rock. In order to get a rock hard and durable concrete, it is important to test the composition of its ingredients.
Now let us consider each ingredient used to make concrete. The main ingredient of concrete is cement which is available in many types. Each type has different chemical composition which can give different properties to concrete. Therefore, it is quite necessary to test the quality of cement before getting the desired form of concrete.
Water is also an important factor in determining the quality and durability of concrete. Water is used for hydration in making concrete. Presence of any impurities in water may affect the quality of concrete. Pure drinking water is considered ideal in concrete making, as it is free of impurities, such as minerals and salts. Sea water is not suitable for concrete making.
Other ingredients of concrete are stones and sand. These ingredients must also be clean and free from any contaminating substances in making durable and fine quality of concrete. Aggregates should not contain substances like wood, humus, and coal. The weak nature of substances like wood or coal can affect the durability of concrete. Presence of water soluble salts like chloride and sulphates in aggregate (sand and stone) are not desirable for a fine concrete. Furthermore, aggregates must also be hard and strong. Concrete producers take keen interest in the shape and size of aggregates as it can play an important role in the formation of desired and durable concrete.

Concrete imaging which is also known by other names such as reinforcing steel imaging or surface/ground penetrating radar (GPR) technique is commonly used as an efficient method of detecting structures and materials (like reinforcing steel or rods which strengthen the building or structure) underneath the concrete structure.
Constructors, technicians, drilling and excavating companies and similar organizations invariably use this rebar imaging method as a prudent course of practice prior to commencing any construction related activity. The idea is to avoid any untoward incident or happening which may result by carrying out construction on any concrete surface without endeavoring to figure out what lies beneath. This in turn, leads to incurring of costs (which of course would not be anticipated) and may also lead to wastage of precious time and efforts eventually leading to possible law suits by those affected and delaying the concerned project which has not even started. Some of the possible hazards that may be anticipated include cutting or interfering with the piping, lines, cables or wiring (in particular, utility based materials) lying underneath.
The GPR device is commonly perceived as more accurate due to its sophisticated nature and is rather trendy and good looking as compared to other concrete scanning mechanisms that can be adopted and readily available for the consumers. GPR can range in size from 2×2 or 4×4 in three dimensional shapes.
On average, it takes around thirty minutes for such GPRs to process and provide the results including the all important task of collecting the data as received and processing it for reading (which is displayed on to the LCD screen of the GPR). GPRs work on wavelengths with low or short frequencies and hence can work perfectly well with rather small transmitters and antennas. The latter is an important and unique characteristic of this rebar imaging device hence making it stand out from other available scanners in the market. It is factors like these which can alter the decision making of a consumer who are spoilt for choices when they go out for purchasing such scanning devices. GPRs can be conveniently and safely used during the varying stages of any construction, including designing, depending on the judgment of the people on ground who may feel the need to scan a particular surface.
Hence, you can be comforted by the fact that a certain area is clear of any obstructions such as cables, wiring, pipes etc and commence the construction with clear instructions and confidence, as you have acted reasonably by adopting to the most prudent method available to you to avert any untoward or hazardous (including physical injuries or casualties) incident causing nuisance and problem for all concerned.
It cannot be emphasized enough that the readings, calculations and any related evaluation of the data and readings obtained through GPRs ought to be done by trained professionals and technicians who are well aware with the modus operandi of such a device and have had past experiences of using it, particularly in light of the fact that such pattern reading on LCD can be technical. This will cause and ensure that you are acting and relying on correct data and information.

The use of electromagnetic rays for the purposes of concrete slab x-rays has been in vogue for quite some time and forms the basis of initial inspection by invariably all the concerned who intend to carry out construction or building work in certain vicinity.
There are numerous organizations in operation who are expert in this business of concrete slab x-rays. Having said that, you ought to carry out the requisite due diligence and background check on the performance and modes that such organizations adopt in achieving the desired results. A comparative analysis of their profiles and the costs for such services ought to be conducted and on such basis an informed decision need to be taken to achieve the desired objectives and simultaneously comforting the safety and security measures that should be in place.
Such organisations commonly rely on the radioactive materials such as Cobalt 60 and Iridium 192 as a means of radiation to detect the obstructions in a structure or beneath the surface or ground.
It is quite common for bricks or slabs in thickness of around eighteen inches to be radiographed. However, shooting is only suggested for slabs within the thickness range of fifteen inches or lower. Such radiations are used to detect passages or conduits, reinforcing steel such as rods, beams and concrete, cable wires of any nature and thickness, plumbing works, fire break mechanism etc before drilling or cutting of the surface or structure can be undertaken, in particular, in tall structures and buildings.
It is quite common to shoot from the top end of a structure with the intention that the radioactive rays will penetrate through the slab in between and reflected through the film as placed at the ceiling at the bottom. This is by far one of the most precise and effective ways of detecting the obstructions, as mentioned above.
Of utmost concern and attention is the safety aspect which is often associated with the use of radioactive substances at open places and its exposure to humans. It is scientifically proven that radiations may have long term and harmful effects on the human body; hence this should be the foremost concern each time a structure of building is being x-rayed. Towards this, it is suggested that an area of hundred inch in diameter around the concerned area which will be exposed to radiation should be cleared so as to disallow people in such vicinity. Likewise, evacuation is also required within an area of around sixty inches in diameter around the concerned area where the film is situated.
Certain rituals ought to be performed prior to commencement of scanning. The lessor or building owner should be intimated before hand, elevator and emergency exits need to be marked specifying its usage or non-usage and the designation of the area for mobile x-ray darkroom should be appropriately identified (by means of sign boards or hoardings) and reserved.
Also, digital wall x-rays can be resorted to, to procure digital like pictures which will identify the obstructions, thereby making the drilling exercise through the walls much easier.

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a non-intrusive and near surface equipment which is used to get images of concrete subsurface and other objects at a much higher resolution. In GPR surveys, data can be displayed or analyzed in different ways. In order to get a high quality of data presentation, the results of GPR investigation are further processed and displayed in a 3-dimentional color report. Developments regarding acquisition methodology, post-processing software and using high frequency antennas have helped much in producing high resolution 3-dimensional images of the internal environment of concrete structures.
GPR interprets the collected data and displays it in the form of visualizations which can be easily interpreted by the analysts. In fact, displaying of data is an integral part of interpretation which is done accurately by radar in the form of 3-dimensional and 2-dimensional images.GPR can provide good data of buried objects in concrete as well as of voids and imperfections in the ground more accurately as compared to other equipments due to its high resolution images. 3D imaging can visualize deterioration in the lower and upper parts of concrete structures and corrosion of reinforced steel.
Radar is comprised of two antennas i.e. transmitting and receiving antennas. Transmitting antenna delivers sound waves into the concrete structure or any other material to be tested. These sound waves reach the internal or hidden objects and are thus reflected back to the surface. The reflected signal is collected by the receiving antenna and then the variation in the reflected signal is evaluated to produce images. Generally antennas are dragged on concrete surface in transects within a grid. The reflections are recorded per second and by plotting them in a vertical profile, a 2-dimensional vertical slice of reflections can be produced. By collecting many transects in a grid, a 3D database is acquired.
Radar can generate easy-to-interpret images from continuous profiles and 3D images can assist in knowing additional information which is difficult to collect on a single GPR record. 3D images can be generated by GPR in several different ways. GSSI’s 16-bit 3D imaging program was not feasible due to its time consuming factor. This 3D imaging program consumed much time in getting field data and producing 3D images by first preparing 2D data. Moreover, its images were not meaningful enough. Sometimes the analysts were left confused regarding the exact location of underground utilities and voids when they used this software program. By using another software program named contour package, 3D imaging can be conducted without any consumption of time. This software has a special auto-pick program.
The images produced by full-resolution Ground Penetrating Radar are superior as compared to traditional 3D radar. The images generated by high resolution GPR are much easier to interpret than 3-dimensional images generated by traditional 3D radars. With the help of full-resolution images, the internal properties of concrete or other materials can be determined more accurately and precisely. Full- resolution data collection is beneficial in monitoring and evaluating concrete and other materials.

In the construction industry, concrete is tested before construction starts for various reasons. There are underground utilities like cables, conduit, metallic and non-metallic pipes, and sewer lines that need to be identified before any drilling or cutting should begin. Concrete testing methods are of two types: destructive and non-destructive. One of the most common destructive testing methods is drilling of core samples. Usually a steel tube is used to drill a hole in the structure, which not only causes damage to the structure but also sometimes gives inaccurate results. Different corers are used for different types of materials but they are all unsafe and destructive methods of testing concrete structures.
In non-destructive testing methods, the most common type is the use of radar or radioactive waves to obtain information about subsurface features. While destructive testing methods are time consuming and require a lot of manpower, non-destructive methods are not only safe and hazard free but are also quite fast. GPR or ground penetrating radar systems are becoming increasingly popular in the construction industry because of their reliability. The internal conditions of an object can be identified by using GPR without causing damage to the object. Other non-destructive methods work in a similar fashion.
Just like electromagnetic waves, some non-destructive concrete testing tools make use of sound waves to obtain subsurface information or buried objects. These waves are reflected by imperfections in the structures including cracks, voids, leaks, and other defects. Modern tools come equipped with computer software which can be used to visualize the internal conditions using graphs and charts. Most methods take the thickness of concrete as a base measurement and then calculate the probability of a flaw based on some other parameters. Some of these non-destructive concrete scanning methods provide up to 90% accurate results.
In destructive testing, the structures have to be repaired after testing has been done. Both types of testing methods can be used to test new as well as old concrete structures. Other than GPR, visual inspection, half cell electrical potential method, penetration residence, radiographic testing, tomographic modeling, and impact echo testing are also common non-destructive methods. All these methods have their own typical applications and some of them are popularly used in the construction industry.
Ground penetrating radar and some other non-destructive concrete testing methods are suitable for almost all types of concrete including reinforced concrete, hardened concrete, and prestressed concrete. Normally testing methods are employed to test the durability and strength of a concrete structure before it can be cut or drilled. In addition to this, NDT methods can also be used to determine the location of reinforcing bars and underground wiring, piping, and ducting. Defects such as corrosion can also be detected using ground penetrating radar and other non-destructive concrete testing methods.

In the manufacturing industry, inspection and testing are two important processes that must be carried out in order to assure the quality of the final product. Non-destructive concrete testing is done during the testing or examination phase. The requirements include chemical analysis of the concrete structure, mechanical properties of the reinforcement, location of the reinforcement, properties of the cement to be used, slump and pouring of the concrete, and control of compression test samples. There is an independent quality control department that inspects the structure at different stages and compares the result with the requirements stated in the contract.
Quality operators must be properly trained in order to detect the flaws and report them properly before any construction work could begin. If the staff is not experienced, the quality objectives might not be met. The management needs to ensure that proper measurement and monitoring is performed during all stages of quality assurance. These include customer satisfaction, process monitoring, data analysis for improvement, and internal audit of all processes, among other things. In the end, the management should ensure that all customer requirements have been met properly.
Organizations need to prepare procedures that describe what processes should be carried out for quality management. These procedures are prepared at three levels: system level, process level, and operation level. Before performing non-destructive testing, the testing department needs to employ different inspection methods to detect different types of flaws or defects depending on the characteristics of the material. This stage is known as intermediate inspection after which final non-destructive testing is done as a check that the previous testing was successful.
There is no universal standard for quality requirements; each organization has to define its own requirements depending on their procedures. However, non-destructive concrete testing methods require a preliminary description of standards or limits that must be considered during all phases. Different types of methods are employed for different types of concrete structures to detect maximum flaws. Because of this requirement, adequate and timely training must be provided to the staff to prevent imperfections in design and construction.
The details of non-destructive testing method to be utilized for testing are described in the technique. The technique identifies the testing method to be used as well as an important variable from another technique used within the same method. The main objective of quality control is to fulfill customer requirements and produce a product that is according to the specifications and has been built using minimum cost.
These quality control procedures are to be applied before or during the construction because once the product has been developed, the quality cannot be inspected. The final product must perform its job or function as planned or stated by the customer or the concerned organization.